COP30 has just begun in Belém, Brazil. Every year, the Conference of the Parties (COP) serves as the world’s central stage for climate diplomacy, where governments, scientists, and civil society gather to decide how to respond to the global climate emergency. Over the decades, these meetings have shaped major milestones, from the Kyoto Protocol to the Paris Agreement. Yet behind the speeches and pledges, questions persist: how much progress is being made on the ground, and how inclusive are these negotiations in practice?
As countries meet again to assess their collective efforts, looking back at the most recent COPs offers a perspective on how politics, accountability, and competing interests continue to influence the global climate agenda.
What Is the COP?
The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the annual United Nations summit that brings together the 198 signatories to the 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Its purpose is to coordinate international action on climate change through negotiation, progress assessment, and new commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
COPs are usually held in November or December and last about two weeks. The first took place in 1995 in Berlin, and the tradition has continued ever since. COP27 was hosted by Egypt in 2022, COP28 by the United Arab Emirates in 2023, and COP29 by Azerbaijan in 2024. This year, COP30 marks Brazil’s turn to host the event in the Amazonian city of Belém.
Over the years, COPs have produced landmark outcomes, from the Kyoto Protocol (1997) to the Paris Agreement (2015). More recent debates have focused on climate finance, adaptation, and the global transition away from fossil fuels. Yet, as recent conferences show, progress often comes with friction, delays, and controversy.
The COP Controversies Over the Years
COP27 (2022) - Egypt
Held in Sharm el-Sheikh, COP27 centered on the question of climate justice. Developing nations demanded compensation for loss and damage caused by climate impacts that they did little to create. Therefore, the creation of a Loss and Damage Fund was a landmark step, though details on financing and governance were deferred.
Egypt’s hosting of the summit drew criticism over restrictions on civil society. Amnesty International reported hundreds of arrests before the event, including activists detained for online content. Tight surveillance and limited protest spaces highlighted how political control intersected with the climate agenda.
Meanwhile, energy security concerns following the war in Ukraine exposed inconsistencies in global climate policy. Some European nations resumed coal use or sought new gas projects in Africa, while methane leaks from natural gas infrastructure were found to be worse than estimated. These developments raised questions about whether short-term energy strategies were undermining long-term climate goals.
COP28 (2023) - United Arab Emirates
The 2023 summit in Dubai was among the most debated in COP history. The appointment of Sultan Al Jaber, CEO of the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company, as COP president drew immediate criticism over conflicts of interest. Al Jaber’s comments, suggesting there was “no science” supporting a fossil fuel phase-out, only deepened the controversy.
Leaked letters from OPEC revealed coordinated lobbying to block references to phasing out fossil fuels in the final text. Despite this, over 100 countries advocated for clear language on ending fossil fuel use. The resulting “UAE Consensus” included the phrase “transitioning away from fossil fuels,” the first such mention in COP history. However, critics noted that the wording allowed broad interpretation and loopholes for continued production through “abatement” and carbon capture.
The summit also drew scrutiny for restrictions on activism. Human Rights Watch documented limits on protests, surveillance of delegates, and constraints on speech. Still, COP28 produced incremental steps on renewable energy commitments and adaptation finance, even as it highlighted the influence of the fossil fuel industry on global negotiations.
COP29 (2024) - Azerbaijan
In Baku, COP29 took place under similar scrutiny. Azerbaijan’s record on press freedom and civil rights was a major concern, with several journalists and activists arrested in the months before the event. Human rights advocate Anar Mammadli and economist Gubad Ibadoghlu were among those detained on politically motivated charges.
The conference also saw diplomatic tensions flare when President Ilham Aliyev criticized Western countries in his opening speech, prompting France to boycott the event. Regional issues, including the aftermath of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, added to the complex political backdrop.
The negotiations were dominated by debates over climate finance. Wealthy countries announced a target of $300 billion annually by 2035, largely relying on private capital and multilateral banks. Developing nations argued that the proposal lacked direct grant funding and risked increasing debt burdens. Observers reported confusion and frustration over the agreement’s final approval, with some delegations absent when it was gaveled through.
COP29 concluded with calls for greater transparency, inclusivity, and consistency in how future summits are hosted and managed.
Patterns and Lessons
Across COP27, COP28, and COP29, several common threads emerge. Each conference underscored both the urgency of global climate action and the difficulties of collective decision-making. The creation of new financial mechanisms and the first explicit reference to moving away from fossil fuels were significant steps. Still, they came alongside persistent divisions over fairness, responsibility, and implementation.
A recurring criticism has been greenwashing: the gap between rhetoric and reality. Host countries often present themselves as champions of sustainability while remaining heavily dependent on fossil fuels. At the same time, the presence of record numbers of industry lobbyists, particularly from oil and gas companies, has raised concerns about the balance of influence in climate negotiations.
These issues point to a broader tension: how to ensure that the COP process remains a platform for genuine progress rather than symbolic gestures. Many observers argue that transparency, stronger accountability mechanisms, and better inclusion of civil society are essential to rebuilding trust in the process.
Conclusion
As COP30 unfolds in Brazil, the focus is again on implementation and credibility. The last three conferences demonstrated how progress can coexist with controversy, and how global ambition must be matched by local action and political will.
While the COP framework remains the cornerstone of international climate cooperation, its effectiveness depends on whether commitments are translated into tangible outcomes. The coming days in Belém will show whether lessons from past conferences can help turn dialogue into decisive progress.
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